Proteins Quiz

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 123: Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function, and this shape is maintained by many different types of chemical bonds. Changes in temperature, pH, and exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to loss of function, known as denaturation. All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the most common 20 types of amino acids.

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 125: amino acids refer to those necessary for construction of proteins in the body, although not produced by the body; which amino acids are essential varies from organism to organism. The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine the protein's shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, releasing a molecule of water. The resulting bond is the peptide bond (Figure 3.26).

PDF page 125: amino acids refer to those necessary for construction of proteins in the body, although not produced by the body; which amino acids are essential varies from organism to organism. The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine the protein's shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, releasing a molecule of water. The resulting bond is the peptide bond (Figure 3.26).

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 126: As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. For example, an enzyme can bind to a specific substrate at a site known as the active site. If this active site is altered because of local changes or changes in overall protein structure, the enzyme may be unable to bind to the substrate. To understand how the protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary Structure The unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary structure. For example, the pancreatic hormone insulin has two polypeptide chains, A and B, and they are linked together by disulfide bonds. The N terminal amino acid of the A chain is glycine, whereas the C terminal amino acid is asparagine (Figure 3.27). The sequences of amino acids in the A and B chains are unique to insulin.

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 128: shaped, while normal cells are disc-shaped. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman; scale-bar data from Matt Russell) Secondary Structure The local folding of the polypeptide in some regions gives rise to the secondary structure of the protein. The most common are the α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures (Figure 3.30). Both structures are held together by hydrogen bonds. In the α-helix structure, the hydrogen bonds form between the oxygen atom in the carbonyl group in one amino acid and another amino acid that is four amino acids farther along the chain.

PDF page 127: The unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene encoding the protein. A change in nucleotide sequence of the gene’s coding region may lead to a different amino acid being added to the growing polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin β chain (a small portion of which is shown in Figure 3.28) has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in protein structure and function. Specifically, the amino acid glutamic acid is substituted by valine in the β chain. What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule—which dramatically decreases life expectancy—is a single amino acid of the 600. What is even more remarkable is that those 600 amino acids are encoded by three nucleotides each, and the mutation is caused by a single base change (point mutation), 1 in 1800 bases.

PDF page 127: Figure 3.28 The beta chain of hemoglobin is 147 residues in length, yet a single amino acid substitution leads to

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 129: All of these interactions, weak and strong, determine the final three-dimensional shape of the protein. When a protein loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Quaternary Structure In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall structure. For example, insulin (a globular protein) has a combination of hydrogen bonds and disulfide bonds that cause it to be mostly clumped into a ball shape. Insulin starts out as a single polypeptide and loses some internal sequences in the presence of post-translational modification after the formation of the disulfide linkages that hold the remaining chains together. Silk (a fibrous protein), however, has a β-pleated sheet structure that is the result of hydrogen bonding between different chains. The four levels of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) are illustrated in Figure 3.32.

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 123: Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function, and this shape is maintained by many different types of chemical bonds. Changes in temperature, pH, and exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to loss of function, known as denaturation. All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the most common 20 types of amino acids.

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 130: Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape that are held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject to changes in temperature, changes in pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape without losing its primary sequence in what is known as denaturation. Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure of the polypeptide is conserved in the process if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, leading to loss of function. One example of irreversible protein denaturation is when an egg is fried. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot springs have proteins that function at temperatures close to boiling. The stomach is also very acidic, has a low pH, and denatures proteins as part of the digestion process; however, the digestive enzymes of the stomach retain their activity under these conditions. Protein folding is critical to its function. It was originally thought that the proteins themselves were responsible for the folding process. Only recently was it found that often they receive assistance in the folding process from protein helpers known as chaperones (or chaperonins) that associate with the target protein during the folding process. They act by preventing aggregation of polypeptides that make up the complete protein structure, and they disassociate from the protein once the target protein is folded.

PDF page 121: Proteins are long chains of different sequences of the 20 amino acids that each contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable group. (Think of how many protein “words” can be made with 20 amino acid “letters”). Each amino acid is linked to its neighbor by a peptide bond formed by a dehydration reaction. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins serve many functions in cells. They act as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, provide structural support, regulate the passage of substances across the cell membrane, protect against disease, and coordinate cell signaling pathways. Protein structure is organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. A change in just one amino acid can change protein structure and function. For example, sickle cell anemia results from just one amino acid substitution in a hemoglobin molecule consisting of 574 amino acids. The secondary structure consists of the local folding of the polypeptide by hydrogen bond formation; leading to the α helix and β pleated sheet conformations. In the tertiary structure, various interactions, e.g., hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions between R groups, contribute to the folding of the polypeptide into different three-dimensional configurations. Most enzymes are of tertiary configuration. If a protein is denatured, loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH can denature proteins. Some proteins, such as hemoglobin, are formed from several polypeptides, and the interactions of these subunits form the quaternary structure of proteins. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in

PDF page 125: The products formed by such linkages are called peptides. As more amino acids join to this growing chain, the resulting chain is known as a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end is called the N terminal, or the amino terminal, and the other end has a free carboxyl group, also known as the C or carboxyl terminal. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, often have bound nonpeptide prosthetic groups, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function. After protein synthesis (translation), most proteins are modified. These are known as post-translational modifications. They may undergo cleavage or phosphorylation, or may require the addition of other chemical groups. Only after these modifications is the protein completely functional.

PDF page 123: Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha (α) carbon, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another atom or group of atoms bonded to the central atom known as the R group (Figure 3.24).

PDF page 124: The chemical nature of the side chain determines the nature of the amino acid (that is, whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar). For example, the amino acid glycine has a hydrogen atom as the R group. Amino acids such as valine, methionine, and alanine are nonpolar or hydrophobic in nature, while amino acids such as serine, threonine, and cysteine are polar and have hydrophilic side chains. The side chains of lysine and arginine are positively charged, and therefore these amino acids are also known as basic amino acids. Proline has an R group that is linked to the amino group, forming a ringlike structure. Proline is an exception to the standard structure of an animo acid since its amino group is not separate from the side chain (Figure 3.25). Amino acids are represented by a single upper case letter or a three-letter abbreviation. For example, valine is known by the letter V or the three-letter symbol val. Just as some fatty acids are essential to a diet, some amino acids are necessary as well. They are known as essential amino acids, and in humans they include isoleucine, leucine, and cysteine. Essential